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  • Although unexpected based on our predictions

    2022-06-21

    Although unexpected based on our predictions, low baseline and post-stress cortisol being associated with high anxiety has been previously documented in both clinical and healthy populations of humans (Beaton et al., 2006; Jezova et al., 2004; Shirotsuki et al., 2009; Vingerhoets et al., 1996), and in rodents (Cohen et al., 2006). But, none of the above studies assess genotype. The reason for the association between decreased baseline and post-stress cortisol and anxiety is not clear. However, recent studies exploring the interaction between the HPA axis and the endocannabinoid system may provide insight (Balsevich et al., 2017). For example, it is well documented (in rodents) that acute stress (likely via increased CRF) decreases the amount of AEA in the BLA resulting in increased anxiety and in HPA axis activation (Gray et al., 2015), but glucocorticoids can have different effects from stress. Exposure to elevated glucocorticoids without stress results in increased AEA in the amygdala of rats within 10 min (Hill et al., 2010b). Additionally, the site of sampling, for example blue nitro vs. periphery, matters. Whereas in rodents, acute stress decreases amygdala AEA, in humans, acute psychosocial stress increased circulating AEA (Dlugos et al., 2012), and circulating cortisol and AEA have bene shown to be positively correlated (Hill et al., 2013b). This AEA-enhancing effect of stress and glucocorticoids is thought to help reign in the initial response to stress (Morena et al., 2016), suggesting that individuals with lower baseline and post-acute-stress cortisol may have decreased AEA and thus more activity in the BLA. Moreover, circulating AEA is negatively correlated with anxiety in healthy and psychiatric populations – lower AEA is related to higher anxiety (Dlugos et al., 2012; Hill et al., 2008), suggesting that when taking this evidence into account lower cortisol could be associated with higher anxiety. But, individuals with lower baseline AEA tended to have higher post-stress cortisol, and baseline cortisol is not always correlated with baseline AEA (Dlugos et al., 2012), suggesting more information is needed. Glucocorticoids are necessary for sculpting the functional connectivity between the amygdala and prefrontal cortex and for normal fear extinction (Hill et al., 2018), and reduced cortisol, along with elevated CRF, is found in individuals with PTSD, a disorder characterized, at least in part, by overactivity of the amygdala and impaired fear processing (Hill et al., 2018). Taken together, these data suggest low cortisol can be associated with endocannabinoid signaling and anxiety. It is important to note, however, that the bidirectional interactions between the endocannabinoid system and the HPA axis are complex (Balsevich et al., 2017; Morena et al., 2016) and involve not just the BLA and PVN, but several other brain regions (e.g., hippocampus, prefrontal cortex, ventral tegmental area, bed nucleus of the stria terminalis) and mediators (e.g., 2-AG, arginine vasopressin, GABA, 5-HT). Additionally, the time course of hormone elevation, time point of sample collection, location of sample collection, level of hormone (baseline vs. post-stress), duration of stress (acute vs. chronic), past life experiences (e.g., childhood or adult trauma), and species (e.g. rodents vs humans) can all impact outcomes (Balsevich et al., 2017; Hill et al., 2018; Morena et al., 2016). Less is known about the baseline interactions of these systems as more work has investigated impacts of acute or chronic stress and/or artificial glucocorticoid elevation, and, due to ability to control variables and manipulate and analyze brains, rodents have been the primary study species. Future studies to illuminate more precisely how durations (acute vs. chronic) and species-specific levels (e.g., circadian peak or post-stress) of glucocorticoid increase alter amygdalar AEA and FAAH, and anxiety-like behavior are needed to determine the interacting role these systems play in anxiety. For our study, it is important to point out that no specific stressor was applied prior to collection of blood samples used for assay of cortisol, but it is possible that hormone levels were not true representations of baseline as some participants may have found anticipation of a medical exam and venipuncture stressful. We did use time of day of blood sample as a covariate to control for circadian variation in cortisol. However, even if our samples are not true baseline values, our data are still supported by other studies showing baseline and post-stress cortisol are lower in those with increased anxiety. Additionally, we were not able to measure AEA in our study, but future studies should measure levels of circulating glucocorticoids and endocannabinoids in the same participants.